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Feature photo courtesy of the Library of Congress
Asian Americans make up the fastest-growing racial group in the United States, largely due to immigration. In the latest issue of the Journal of Economic Perspectives, Sanford professor Hannah Postel examines how this growth is more than just a demographic shift. She explains that for over a century, U.S. immigration laws and foreign policy shaped who could come from Asia and what opportunities awaited them in America.
Postel says she was drawn to the topic after realizing how central Asian exclusion was to the creation of the modern immigration system.
“I was struck by the fact that our entire immigration system was formed with the goal of keeping Asian immigrants out. It felt important to shed light on a group that has been so central to immigration and race throughout U.S. history, but for whom there is very little systematic quantitative evidence.”
Postel breaks this history into three key eras:
Asian Exclusion (1882–1943)
During this period, the U.S. enacted sweeping laws that severely restricted immigration from Asia. Early legislation targeted Chinese immigrants, and later measures extended these restrictions to people from other Asian countries. Asian immigrants also faced bans on becoming U.S. citizens. At the same time, federal immigration restrictions and state and local laws separately regulated their property ownership, employment opportunities, and civic participation.
Many features of today’s immigration system, including paperwork requirements, entry interviews, detention, and deportation, have roots in efforts to control Asian migration. The exclusion laws governed who could enter and in what numbers, while accompanying Supreme Court decisions limited access to citizenship and reinforced racial barriers. Together, these policies shaped both immigration flows and the legal and economic position of Asians already living in the United States.
Restriction and Limited Openings (1943–1965)
During this period, the strict bans of the earlier era became less sweeping, though immigration from Asia remained limited. During and after World War II, Congress created small quotas for Asian countries and new avenues for spouses and fiancé(e)s of U.S. citizens, especially families connected to military service in Asia. Eligibility for naturalization expanded incrementally across different Asian nationalities.
These changes allowed more Asian immigrants to become citizens and settle with their families, laying groundwork for future growth. However, strict numerical limits remained in place even as policy adjustments reshaped long-term settlement patterns.
Growth and Diversification (1965–Present)
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 marked a turning point by ending national-origin quotas for Asia and beyond. U.S. immigration policy shifted to prioritize family reunification and employment-based visas. Later refugee programs expanded pathways for people fleeing conflicts in Southeast Asia.
The results were dramatic. Since 1960, the number of U.S. residents born in Asia has increased more than twentyfold. The way people entered the country, through family sponsorship, employment, or refugee status, also influenced their educational backgrounds, occupations, income levels, and experiences, leading to wide diversity within the Asian American community.
If readers take away one core idea, Postel says it should be this:
“Asian Americans, more than arguably any other immigrant group, have been disproportionately affected by U.S. policy, not just immigration policy but also colonial actions, diplomacy, and war. Often things we think of as ‘cultural’ for this group, like high educational achievement, really track back to how U.S. policy decisions directly shaped immigration flows.”
One of Postel’s central points is that there is no single Asian American experience. People from different countries arrived under different policies and in different eras. Averages often hide important differences within and among these communities.
Key Points
- U.S. policies have been the main driver of Asian immigration trends.
- Asian immigrants were the only group to face broad federal exclusion and prolonged citizenship bans.
- The 1965 law fundamentally changed Asian immigration and led to rapid growth.
- Different entry pathways (family, employment, refugee status) created distinct demographic and economic patterns.
- Diversity within the Asian American population is often greater than differences between Asians and other groups.
- Gaps in long-term research data limit understanding of mobility and inequality for Asian Americans.